[331] Greek technical and scientific literature began with Classical Athens in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were Alexandria, Rhodes, and Pergamon. He created the League of Corinth, which included most of the city states of Greece, including all the leading ones except Sparta. [127] Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus. [281], Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. [150], The Aetolian League hampered Antigonus II's control over central Greece, and the formation of the Achaean League in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta. The empire at its greatest extent under Alexander the Great. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula,[8] and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south. A Macedonian army led by Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting the siege. [205] Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the second Battle of Pydna by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, whose forces occupied the kingdom. [56] He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis. [99] After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as prisoners of war, and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again. [note 25] In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of proxenia (i.e. [231] Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian commonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (ecclesia) of Thessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice. The Macedonian kings, who wielded absolute power and commanded state resources such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to mint currency, finance their armies and, by the reign of Philip II, a Macedonian navy. [68] Philip II's initial campaign against Pherae in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general Onomarchus. [320] Later Macedonian architecture also featured arches and vaults. Macedonia (/ˌmæsɪˈdoʊniə/ (listen); Ancient Greek: Μακεδονία), also called Macedon (/ˈmæsɪdɒn/), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece,[6] and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. [252], The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,[249] yet he formed a hipparchia (i.e. [134] While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305–283 BC) of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty, Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC) of the Seleucid Empire, and Lysimachus (r. 306–281 BC), King of Thrace, defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight. [263] The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC peace treaty that concluded the Second Macedonian War with the Roman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some lemboi at the outbreak of the Third Macedonian War in 171 BC. Greek arts and literature flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in philosophy, engineering, and science spread throughout much of the ancient world. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the Fourth Macedonian War in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia. [24] Following the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with Athens, an offer that was rejected. [164], Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king Cleomenes III of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the Cleomenean War (229–222 BC). [90] They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip II. This grand plan, however, failed to be realized by Philip himself, having been assassinated in 336 BCE. [260] The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men. [234] Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek koina (i.e., federations of city-states, the sympoliteia) obeyed the federal decrees voted on collectively by the members of their league. [258] While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the Celtic invaders of the 270s BC who settled in Galatia, central Anatolia. [note 20] The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king. [338] Some mines, groves, agricultural lands, and forests belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often leased as assets or given as grants to members of the nobility such as the hetairoi and philoi. The Macedonian Empire was forged out of the campaigns of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. [259], Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.[note 30] From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity. About See All. I t was 25 years ago today that Macedonia celebrated independence from the failed state of Yugoslavia. [106] When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at Ecbatana (near modern Hamadan, Iran) in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington. Now you will begin the war and capture all islands and peninsulas. [109] Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed Roxana, a Sogdian princess of Bactria. [266][note 36], By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the same deities of the Greek pantheon. the elected governor (archon) of a large city (polis), as well as the politico-religious office of the epistates. 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